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Overall results
Study description
Excluded studies
Table
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during pregnancy (anytime or not specified)
1st trimester
2nd trimester
3rd trimester
2nd and/or 3rd trimester
throughout pregnancy
early pregnancy
days before delivery
late pregnancy
preconception-only
periconceptional
preconceptional for kinetic reason
at least 1st trimester
3 months (or more) before pregnancy or during pregnancy
1st and 2nd trimester
3 months or more before pregnancy or1st trimester
Paternal exp. genotoxic window only (0–3 months preconception)
Paternal exposure: epigenetic window only (3–xxx months preconception)
Paternal exposure: genotoxic/epigenetic window (0–xxx months preconception)
Paternal exposure: other window
Whatever the period exposition
individual studies
Outcome
TE
95% CI
n cases
n exposed
k
Pub. bias
Congenital malformations
Major congenital malformations
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
0.72
[
0.27
; 1.93]
26
148
not evaluable
Growth parameters and prematurity
Preterm (< 37 weeks)
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025 Jain, 2025 Salvatore, 2026
3
1.03
[
0.74
; 1.43]
220
273
not evaluable
Extremely preterm (< 28 weeks)
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
0.33
[
0.02
; 6.19]
4
147
not evaluable
Large for gestational age (weight)
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
1.22
[
0.66
; 2.26]
56
147
not evaluable
Small for gestational age (weight)
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
0.38
[
0.19
; 0.76]
81
147
not evaluable
Very preterm (28 to 32 weeks)
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
2.28
[
0.50
; 10.29]
7
147
not evaluable
Low birth weight (< 2500g)
Jain, 2025
1
0.90
[
0.43
; 1.89]
39
67
not evaluable
Maternal consequences
Caesarean
Jain, 2025 Salvatore, 2026
2
0.89
[
0.55
; 1.45]
149
103
not evaluable
Assisted deliveries (forceps, vacuum, ...)
0
-
-
-
-
-
Gestational diabetes
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
2.84
[
1.87
; 4.32]
127
148
not evaluable
Preeclampsia
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
1.19
[
0.49
; 2.92]
25
148
not evaluable
Neonatal disorders
Neonatal medical care
Jain, 2025
1
1.29
[
0.68
; 2.43]
56
75
not evaluable
Low Apgar score (< 7) (at 1 min)
Jain, 2025
1
0.70
[
0.30
; 1.65]
28
70
not evaluable
Low Apgar score (< 7) (at 5 min)
Jain, 2025
1
0.76
[
0.18
; 3.16]
9
71
not evaluable
Intrauterine deaths
Late intrauterine deaths (> 22 weeks) / Stillbirths
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
0.61
[
0.03
; 12.74]
2
148
not evaluable
Therapeutic terminations of pregnancy
Chouchana (Controls unexposed, sick), 2025
1
0.38
[
0.05
; 3.04]
9
148
not evaluable
Early intrauterine deaths (< 22 weeks) / Spontaneous abortions
Jain, 2025
1
0.71
[
0.33
; 1.51]
37
101
not evaluable
0.0
20.0
1.0